Under the watchful eye: How India is transforming into a ‘CCTV nation’ | Technology News

On a breezy June morning, Jaanvi Sharma, a lawyer specialising in cyber laws and data protection, boarded an auto rickshaw to Andheri railway station. It was a routine trip until she noticed a curious object adjacent to the steering wheel. It was a CCTV camera. Visibly distressed, Sharma told the driver how it was in violation of her privacy. The driver, unfazed, said it was for his protection as he has had several passengers misbehave with him in the past.
Some 800 kilometres away, in a remote village in Junagadh, Gujarat, security cameras are helping families sleep in peace. It started with one CCTV for the entire village to deter leopard attacks. Now, three out of five homes have one camera along with an alerting system. “We have been living under constant fear. Not just us, families with children in the neighbourhood are always on alert. We can never predict when a leopard will stray into our streets or pounce on our livestock,” said a resident of Mendpara, who didn’t want to be named, adding that having CCTVs in the vicinity has allayed their fears to a great extent.
If the last decade saw the rapid proliferation of smartphones in India — there are now an estimated 660 million devices for a population of 1.4 billion — it also saw a rise in the number of security cameras keeping a virtual eye on everything that’s happening in urban and rural India.
The evolution of CCTV
The closed circuit television, or CCTV, was invented by German electrical engineer Walter Bruch and was first used in 1942 to record live footage. Several accounts also suggest that early forms of CCTVs were used during World War II to monitor V-2 rockets. These cameras reportedly became commercially available in 1949. Another account suggests that the first CCTV system was credited to Russian physicist Leon Theremin in 1927. He reportedly used a shortwave radio to transmit a 100-line resolution image that was meant to watch over visitors at the Kremlin.
In 1951, the invention of videotape recorder or VTR marked a turning point as this allowed CCTV systems to record footage, making them more dynamic for security operations. It was in the 1960s that the world saw the introduction of commercially available CCTV systems, and cities like Munich and London began using them for monitoring purposes. Some reports also suggest that they were used for pay-per-view broadcasting of sporting events.
Fast forward to 2024, security cameras are now widely used in schools, homes, and public places and are more than just a monitoring tool. While earlier these cameras were complex, requiring large and extensive cables, they have now grown to be compact and easily manageable.
A look at the history of CCTVs. (Illustration by Abhishek Mitra)
Proliferation in India
In the last 10 years, India has seen a remarkable rise in the use of CCTV cameras. From urban centres to rural villages, surveillance technology has permeated every aspect of society.
According to a 2023 report by Comparitech, a UK-based cyber security and privacy research firm, India is one of the countries with the most surveilled cities — Delhi, Hyderabad, Chennai, Mumbai, and Indore rank among the top 10 — in the world outside of China, based on the number of cameras per square mile.
There is an upward rise in the number of CCTVs being installed in cities across India. (Illustration by Abhishek Mitra)
Rebecca Moody, head of data research at Comparitech, notes it is easier to gather data for Metros compared to Tier 2 and 3 cities. “We try to find figures for police cameras, traffic cameras, transport cameras, and public cameras (e.g. in shopping centres) to try and get an idea of how many are in use in each city. But there will be many private cameras that we’re unable to find figures for, too,” she says.
India is burgeoning with various players in the CCTV manufacturing segment. (Illustration by Abhishek Mitra)
Ashish P Dhakan, MD of Hikvision India, a video surveillance solutions provider, believes that there is a growing consensus among policymakers, law enforcement agencies, and the public about the utility of CCTV as a security system. Dhakan noted that CCTVs provide valuable insights for forensic investigations in the event of a security breach.
However, the widespread use of CCTVs has sparked a debate on privacy infringement and the regulation of CCTV systems.
“CCTV acts as a deterrent and provides critical evidence for investigations, enhancing overall security measures,” says Anuj Rajain, CEO of Soteria, a leading security firm based in Gurugram, adding that CCTVs offer a scalable and cost-effective solution to monitor public places and gated communities.
“We installed CCTVs around our house in 2018, and safety was the main reason for it. Since then, we feel a heightened sense of security,” says Sugandha Mathur, a resident of Vasant Kunj in Delhi. Mathur says that as far as stores, malls and public spaces are concerned, there needs to be an oversight in their installation and access should only be given to authorised personnel.
A map showing cities with consolidated data of CCTVs in India. (Illustration by Abhishek Mitra)
Moody, however, opines that there is little to no correlation between the number of CCTV cameras and the crime rates. “Unfortunately, CCTV also paves the way for more surveillance of the general public as a whole and not just would-be criminals. This is especially the case when the CCTVs come with features like facial recognition.”
Public safety and individual privacy
From metro rail to malls and other public places, CCTV cameras are meant to enhance security and identify potential threats, but there has been a steady rise in the number of cases relating to privacy invasion. One such example includes CCTV videos of couples inside Metros and movie theatres finding their way to the internet.
“CCTVs footage saved and maintained by commercial establishments such as malls, hotels, restaurants are governed by laws such as the Public Safety Act. However, the CCTV footage saved and maintained by residential owners are not specifically regulated. There have been instances before the Indian courts where privacy breach has occurred due to CCTVs installed in commonly shared places of a residential neighbourhood,” says Sajai Singh, partner at JSA Advocates and Solicitors. When there is a law that is enforced for the security of the public, an individual’s right to privacy may be compromised, he says.
Police, however, say that the privacy breach-related complaints are scarce. In crime incidents, CCTV footage is the first piece of evidence we seek to locate the movements of vehicles or individuals involved, says Amit Goel, DCP, Crime Branch, Delhi Police.
When asked if individuals who install CCTV need to notify the police, Goel says there is no provision as of now. “On privacy, mostly data from CCTVs is with individuals who own them. And those installed by governments or private companies come with certain authorisation, and they are not openly accessible to the public,” he says.
So what does the law on CCTVs and privacy say?
There are no specific laws safeguarding violation of privacy by CCTVs, but legal experts point to various sections that address the use and regulation of security cameras. In this regard, the new Digital Personal Data Protection Act 2023 (DPDPA) is designed to protect digital personal data.
“The new data protection law will result in various safeguards for CCTV data which corporates will need to adhere to. While monitoring for security purposes would generally be permissible without express consent, any other uses of the data will generally require consent. Individuals would also have certain rights over such data, such as a right to erasure of their data,” says Jaideep Reddy, technology lawyer, and partner at Trilegal, a law firm with offices in Bengaluru, Mumbai, New Delhi, and Gurgaon.
When it comes to balancing security needs and privacy rights, Reddy says, the Supreme Court Constitution Bench’s decision in Puttaswamy vs Union of India in 2017 provides for robust privacy protections, and provides that where individual privacy is impacted, any measures by the State must be legal, necessary, and proportionate.
Article 21 of the Indian Constitution guarantees ‘right to privacy’, says Jaanvi Sharma. “The constitutional protection of this right serves as a safeguard against arbitrary state actions, surveillance, unauthorised data collection, and other intrusions into personal matters.”
The CCTV installed in a rickshaw that was boarded by Jaanvi Sharma. (Image: LinkedIn/Jaanvi Sharma)
When it comes to the legal framework, the Information Technology Act, 2000 (IT Act) penalises certain offences such as capturing images of private areas of a person, without their consent (section 66-E of IT Act, 2000) and transmitting obscene material in electronic form (section 67 of IT Act, 2000). Additionally, Information Technology (Reasonable Security Practices and Procedures and Sensitive Personal Data or Information) Rules, 2011 (SPDI Rules) require a corporate body or any person on its behalf to collect sensitive personal data (i.e., password, financial information, biometric information and health condition) after obtaining written consent from the provider of such sensitive personal data.
Namita Vishwanath from IndusLaw says that while there is no set of central guidelines governing installation of CCTVs, state governments have released several standard operating procedures for installation of security cameras in public spaces including police stations. “Given the above background, an individual should only install CCTV cameras in a manner that they should be in compliance with the consent requirements given under the IT Act, SPDI Rules and DPDP Act. But, the government may be able to take exemption from undertaking obligations under the DPDP Act in light of exceptions granted to it under the DPDP Act,” says Vishwanath.
Rishi Agrawal, co-founder, Teamlease Regtech, a regulatory technology solutions company, believes that CCTV usage requires strict oversight for both legal use and individual privacy. For personal safety, Agrawal suggests the use of tamper-resistant camera enclosures and locking mechanisms.
“CCTVs should be regularly reviewed with frequent updates to access permissions. One should ensure network security measures such as data encryption, regular software updates, disabling unused features, and enforcing strong password policies. Regular system penetration testing is also necessary to assess strength against cyberattacks,” says Agrawal.
Psychological and societal impacts
In the last few years, social media has been flooded with raw CCTV clips of violence, accidents, and often extreme gore. The most conspicuous underside of this is the increase in anxiety and fear. This constant exposure to negative events can likely impair trust in law enforcement, or create a false sense of security. At the same time, it also leads to desensitisation and normalisation of violence.
“There is certainly an increase in raw CCTV footage finding their way to social media. People and the media should raise their voices against this. There should be some form of PIL that prevents social media or media outlets from broadcasting such footage. It is more about good civic sense and a conscience call that people should not publish such videos online,” says Goel.
A hyperbolic image created using DALL-E depicting the stupendous rise of CCTVs in India.
CCTV is more often equated with surveillance. And, any form of surveillance comes with psychological impact, which varies for every individual.
“CCTVs are becoming essential in our lives, but most of the time one is not aware that they are being watched. The response depends on personality type. If a person is carefree they may not react but on the other hand a sensitive person will become conscious and not be spontaneous. In extreme cases some become paranoid and always think have I done the right thing? It may result in not behaving in an authentic way,” argues psychologist Professor Manju Mehta, former Head at the Child and Adolescent Psychiatry Division, AIIMS, New Delhi. Mehta also believes that regardless of the downsides, CCTVs are helpful in solving criminal cases.
Similarly, educational institutions too are increasingly deploying security cameras and other monitoring systems. While these measures enhance safety and discipline, they can also create a sense of constant scrutiny and impact students’ mental well-being.
“In the context of educational institutions in India, the increasing use of CCTVs can be seen as both a measure for enhanced security and a tool for administrative oversight. These cameras provide a safer environment for students and staff by deterring unauthorised access and ensuring prompt responses to emergencies. They also help in identifying and addressing bullying, vandalism, and other forms of misconduct, which in turn increases parents’ confidence in the safety and discipline maintained within the school premises,” says Meeta Jayswal, an educationist.
While there are advantages, Jayswal believes the presence of CCTVs affects students in various ways. “On one hand, it may lead to improved behaviour due to the awareness of being monitored, and students might develop better self-discipline and responsibility. On the other hand, continuous monitoring can create anxiety or stress, inducing a feeling of being under constant scrutiny and impacting mental well-being,” she says, adding that the sense of reduced privacy is significant, as students may feel their personal space is compromised.
A dystopian future with heightened surveillance as imagined by DALL-E.
“CCTVs are everywhere in our campus. It is there in common spaces, classrooms, and even the cafeteria. While I feel that they are necessary for safety, sometimes it just makes us very conscious of our teachers. Especially, in moments when we just want to sit and chit-chat with our friends during breaks,” says Emisha Ann Reji, a Class 11 student in Kottayam.
For Aashia Ajay, a student at Mount Carmel College in Bengaluru, the advantages of CCTV outweigh the concerns. “CCTVs in general provide a sense of safety, which I feel is quite important. However, I feel their advantages outweigh their negative impact. At a time when crime rates are alarmingly high, CCTVs do help in reducing such incidents to an extent. They are a vital and functional piece of technology and have become a necessity today,” she says.
Even as more and more CCTVs find their way to consumers, the transformation of India as a quintessential ‘CCTV nation’ shows a broader trend in the adoption of technology and the resulting societal changes. While the benefits of CCTV in terms of security and crime prevention are evident, the challenges with privacy, legal oversight, and the negative societal impacts cannot be overlooked. As India navigates the digital age, finding a balance between security and personal freedoms will be vital.
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