Imagine a team of engineers and scientists realizing a decade-long dream: from the first sketches of a spacecraft to the roar of a rocket lifting off from Earth. Planning a space mission is an extremely complex marathon that begins long before launch and continues even after the spacecraft returns home. In this article, we will take a step-by-step look at how NASA plans its missions – from concept to implementation – using the Artemis II mission as an example. Artemis II is set to be the first manned trip to the Moon in half a century and a key milestone in the Artemis program, which aims to return humans to the surface of Earth’s satellite. We will discuss the official phases of NASA mission approval, the significance of Artemis II and its objectives, technical challenges, the role of SpaceX, and Elon Musk’s criticism of the Artemis architecture, as well as political obstacles: budget, interagency coordination, and international agreements. Finally, we will compare the ideal mission timeline with the actual one, mention some interesting historical parallels, and answer frequently asked questions about Artemis II.
Artemis II – humanity’s first step toward the Moon in half a century
Artemis II is the second mission in the Artemis lunar program and its first flight with astronauts on board. While Artemis I in 2022 was an unmanned test flight, Artemis II is set to be a decisive step that will pave the way for humans to return to the Moon. According to NASA’s plan, four astronauts will embark on a 10-day journey around the Moon in the Orion spacecraft, launched by the super-heavy Space Launch System (SLS) rocket. This will be the furthest journey humans have ever made from Earth: the Artemis II crew will travel approximately 10,000 km beyond the Moon and perform a free-return trajectory – a trajectory that automatically returns the spacecraft to Earth under the influence of gravity.
The main objectives of Artemis II are to test all Orion spacecraft systems in real deep space conditions with a crew on board and to confirm the readiness of the SLS/Orion complex for the longer Artemis III mission. In particular, astronauts will test Orion’s life support systems (oxygen supply, carbon dioxide removal, temperature control), navigation and communication systems at a distance of ~400,000 km from Earth, as well as the spacecraft’s ability to safely re-enter the atmosphere at second cosmic velocity (~11 km/s). The mission essentially replicates the Apollo 8 flight (1968) – the first manned mission to orbit the Moon — but using modern technology and in the interest of future long-term expeditions.
This will be the first manned flight to the Moon in over 50 years. The last time humans ventured beyond low Earth orbit was in 1972 (Apollo 17 mission). Now, a whole new generation of astronauts – the “Artemis generation” – will have the chance to pave the way to the Moon for all of humanity. Finally, Artemis II will test unique atmospheric entry maneuvers, including skip-entry technology – multiple atmospheric entries for a more precise landing, which Orion tested without a crew on Artemis I.
Key features of Artemis II. It will be a ~10-day flight for 4 crew members. After launch from Kennedy Space Center (launch pad 39B), the SLS rocket will take Orion into Earth orbit, after which the upper stage will perform a TLI (Trans-Lunar Injection) maneuver – sending the spacecraft on a trajectory to the Moon. The crew will make one flyby of the satellite in a large loop (without entering low lunar orbit) and return to Earth on a free return trajectory. According to the plan, the Orion capsule will splash down in the Pacific Ocean, where it will be met by a US Navy ship.
The name of the Artemis program is symbolic. In Greek mythology, Artemis is the twin sister of the god Apollo. In this way, NASA emphasizes its continuity with the Apollo program, which first took humans to the Moon half a century ago.
Stages of NASA mission planning: from Pre-Phase A to Phase F
Every NASA space mission goes through clearly defined life cycle stages – from the birth of an idea to the completion of a project. NASA labels these stages with letters: Pre-Phase A and Phases A, B, C, D, E, and F. Each stage has its own goal, key decisions, and key decision points, at which management decides whether the project is ready to move forward. Below is a brief overview of the main phases.
Pre-Phase A: Conceptual studies. At the very beginning, a wide range of ideas and possible missions are formed. The team analyzes various concepts that potentially meet NASA’s strategic goals and evaluates their technical feasibility, cost, and risks. The goal is to identify one or more promising ideas that can be developed further. At this stage, preliminary research on new technologies or solutions to critical technical issues may be conducted.
Phase A: Concept and technology development. The selected mission concept moves into a more detailed development phase. The basic requirements for the mission and equipment are defined, and the development of the necessary technologies begins. Roughly speaking, a project plan is formed: what exactly the mission should do, what equipment is needed, and the approximate budget and timeline. SRR (System Requirements Review) and SDR (System Definition Review) reviews are conducted.
Phase B: Preliminary design and technology implementation. Transition from concept to specific engineering design. The first drawings and diagrams of the spacecraft are created, and the development of key technologies is completed. The result of this phase is a preliminary design – a detailed description of how the future spacecraft or probe will look and work, and confirmation that all critical technologies are working. At the end of Phase B, a Preliminary Design Review (PDR) is conducted – an independent expert review of the preliminary design before moving on to manufacturing.
Phase C: final design and manufacturing. Engineers complete the detailed design of the system and move on to manufacturing components. In this phase, working drawings and prototypes are created, and production of spacecraft parts, launch vehicles, etc., begins. At the end of Phase C, a Critical Design Review (CDR) is conducted to confirm readiness for assembly and testing.
Phase D: assembly, integration, testing, and launch. All manufactured parts are assembled into a single system, subsystems are integrated, and extensive testing is conducted. For a space mission, this phase includes: assembly of the spacecraft, its integration with the rocket, vibration testing, thermal vacuum testing, software testing – everything to ensure that the spacecraft will withstand launch and operate in space. The final chord is the launch. This is followed by the initial operation phase: deployment of solar panels, entry into orbit, and initial testing of systems in space.
Phase E: operation and support. The mission achieves its primary goal – the spacecraft operates in its target environment (in orbit, on the Moon, etc.) and performs its planned tasks. For the Artemis II manned mission, Phase E is the actual flight of the crew around the Moon: performing maneuvers, supporting the crew’s life support systems, and collecting data. This phase can last from a few days (as in the case of Artemis II) to many years (for interplanetary probes). It also involves ground support, flight control, and processing of scientific data.
Phase F: Project closure. After the active phase of the mission is complete, NASA officially closes the project. For unmanned spacecraft, this may involve storing and disposing of the spacecraft’s remains (for example, deliberately deorbiting it, as in the case of the ISS in the future, or sending it to a “graveyard orbit”). For manned missions, it means the return flight and the successful return of the crew to Earth. The mission team prepares final reports, scientists analyze the results, and engineers summarize the lessons learned from the mission – the knowledge gained during this project – to use it in the future.
The transition between phases is coordinated at key decision points (KDPs), when NASA management assesses the project’s readiness to move forward. If critical issues are identified, the project may be delayed at this phase or even canceled. In this way, NASA ensures gradual control over the project and reduces risks: it is cheaper to correct mistakes in the early stages, when it is only a drawing and not a real rocket.
NASA’s current phase system was developed over decades of managing complex projects. During the Apollo program, NASA introduced a phased approach with interim reviews to ensure mission safety after the tragic Apollo 1 fire (1967). Today’s Pre-Phase A → F are enshrined in NASA’s internal standards (NPR 7120.5) and apply to all space projects – from telescopes to Mars rovers.
SpaceX’s role in the Artemis program and criticism of Elon Musk
Artemis is no longer “just NASA” but a large public-private project in which Elon Musk’s SpaceX plays a key role. First and foremost is the HLS landing module. In 2021, NASA selected SpaceX for Artemis III: a special version of Starship, which, after a series of refueling in orbit, will dock with Orion or Gateway, take two astronauts, land them on the Moon, and return them to orbit. Before that, an unmanned demonstration landing flight is planned – without it, there will be no landing.
SpaceX is also upgrading its infrastructure. Due to delays with SLS Block 1B, it was decided to launch the first Lunar Gateway modules (PPE+HALO) with a single Falcon Heavy in 2025-26. The same rocket will carry the Dragon XL cargo spacecraft, which will supply the station.
Next up are the options. The HLS contract also covers Artemis IV, while NASA is preparing for competition: a landing module from the National Team (led by Blue Origin) has been selected for Artemis V. If Starship proves to be reliable and consistent, some missions may switch to commercial architecture entirely.
Musk, however, is not silent: he calls the current architecture inefficient, and SLS too expensive and disposable (approximately $4 billion per launch). Orion has been in development since 2006 and has already cost more than $20 billion; SLS will cost another $20 billion by 2022. Against this backdrop, Starship promises significantly lower flight costs thanks to its complete reusability.
As a result, SpaceX is both the main contractor for Artemis and its vocal critic. This mix of competition and cooperation could work to everyone’s advantage: the program will benefit from innovation and momentum, and we will have the chance to see faster progress in lunar missions.
Policy and international coordination: it takes more than technology to reach the Moon
Venturing into deep space is not just about engineering, but also politics. Artemis is moving forward amid budget battles, interagency coordination, high diplomacy, and changes in the White House.
Budgets. Every year, funding for Moon to Mars is approved by Congress. NASA requested approximately $8 billion for 2024, but political turbulence threatens cuts: reductions of up to 24% of the total budget as early as 2026 were discussed, which could “bury” more than 40 missions. The agency has already launched a voluntary redundancy program, and about 4,000 people (over 20%) have participated. The Artemis II crew makes no secret of the fact that success must be an argument for further investment. Despite this, the large 2024 budget package did finance Artemis, but the uncertainty has not gone away. In 2025, NASA’s budget request for the Moon to Mars portfolio was about $4.254 billion. As a result, Congress did not have time to approve individual parts and kept NASA at ~$24.8 billion through a full-year resolution (effectively freezing the 2024 level). In the summer, the additional One Big Beautiful Bill package gave the agency another ~$10 billion in targeted funding for Artemis / Moon to Mars programs – specifically ~$4.1 billion for SLS (Artemis IV–V), $2.6 billion for Gateway, $1.25 billion for ISS, and $700 million for Mars Telecom Orbiter – which partially relieved the schedule of manned missions, although scientific cuts were not fully restored.
Coordination. In addition to NASA, the game involves the US Space Force (launch security), the FAA (licenses), and the State Department (agreements). Within NASA, the Marshall (SLS), Johnson (Orion, crew training), and Kennedy (launches) centers, as well as contractors Boeing, Lockheed Martin, and Northrop Grumman, need to be coordinated into a single schedule. Any delay in the chain affects everything else, so the Moon to Mars Program Office was created as a single headquarters for faster decisions.
International framework. The Artemis Accords are a set of principles for peaceful exploration that have already been signed by more than 25 countries, including Ukraine. In practice, this means the European ESM for Orion (without which the spacecraft will not fly), the Canadian Canadarm3 for Gateway, Japan’s contribution to I-Hab, and cargo missions. Partnerships make the program more politically stable and cut off opponents.
Political pendulums. Initiated during Trump’s first term (target – 2024), continued by Biden with an emphasis on consistency, the program is once again entering a phase of course correction after the 2024 elections. On the table are ideas to accelerate the landing at the cost of simplifications, and vice versa – a pause due to sequestration. Loud proposals to cut Gateway or even SLS coexist with bipartisan support and already signed contracts. Artemis III timings range from as soon as possible (2026) to more realistic (2028+).
The conclusion is simple: Artemis’ path is paved not only by blueprints, but also by coalitions. Unlike the Apollo era, the focus is on openness and partnership – this shares costs and risks and increases the chance of reaching the Moon on time, even if one of the players slips up.
Artemis II schedule: how it was planned and how it is actually going
Planning space missions means juggling dates that are constantly shifting. Artemis II was no exception. The ideal timeline for the Artemis missions has been revised more than once. Initially (in 2019), NASA wanted to launch Artemis II as early as 2022. But reality made adjustments: delays in rocket manufacturing, the COVID-19 pandemic, and technical problems – all of this pushed the date back. Currently (as of the end of 2025), the launch of Artemis II is scheduled for no earlier than April 2026.
For clarity, let’s compare the initial plans and current schedules:
| Artemis Mission | Initial launch plan (2019–2020 estimates) | Actual schedule (as of 2025) | |
| Artemis I (unmanned) | ~end of 2021 (initially planned for 2016!) | November 16, 2022 – successfully launched and completed | |
| Artemis II (Moon flyby) | ~2022 (planned for 2019) and later postponed to 2024 | April 2026 – current launch target (after several delays) | |
| Artemis III (Moon landing) | end of 2024 (accelerated goal “by the end of 2024”) | 2027 – first human landing near the south pole of the moon expected (approximately mid-2027) | |
| Artemis IV (Gateway + landing) | ~2026–2027 (not clearly defined in 2019) | 2028 – planned delivery of the Gateway module and subsequent landing | |
| Next… | approximately one launch per year | Artemis V – ~2030, Artemis VI – ~2031, followed by annual missions |
The original plan for 2019 called for a sharp acceleration – to a landing in 2024 – by shortening the intervals between missions. Later, the schedule was extended to take into account the actual pace of development and testing. Even in 2023, NASA shifted the dates: in January 2024, they announced the postponement of Artemis II to September 2025 and Artemis III to 2026, but later the schedule was moved again to April 2026 and 2027, respectively.
As can be seen from the table, there is often a gap of 2-3 years between the ideal and reality. Artemis I is six years behind the original plan (if we count from the Orion plan for 2016), and Artemis II is at least three to four years behind early estimates. But this is typical for large space programs. For comparison, the shuttle was planned to be launched in 1978, but it flew in 1981; the James Webb Space Telescope was supposed to launch in 2014, but it was launched at the end of 2021.
Why are schedules being disrupted? In the case of Artemis, there are several reasons:
– Technical complexity. SLS is essentially a new giant rocket, Orion is a new spacecraft, and there is also integration with the European module. During development, problems arose with the engines, software, and mobile launch tower. For example, in 2021, static fire tests of the SLS were initially interrupted prematurely due to sensors, which forced the test to be repeated, resulting in months of delays.
– Changes in requirements. Artemis II was initially planned for the less powerful SLS Block 1B, then switched to Block 1 with an intermediate ICPS stage. A requirement to test a rendezvous maneuver with a service module (Proximity Operations Demonstration) was also added – it was included in the Artemis II plan, which added work for the team (ultimately, this maneuver was removed to simplify the mission).
– Crew safety. NASA is deliberately taking its time with Artemis II because it understands that this is the first manned flight. As Bill Nelson said, “We are returning to the Moon like never before, and the safety of our astronauts is our top priority”. The issues identified (heat shield, batteries, and ventilation) require time to fix. NASA would rather delay the launch than risk human lives to meet the deadline.
– Dependence on partners. Artemis III, for example, is heavily dependent on the readiness of Starship HLS. SpaceX only conducted an orbital test of Starship without explosions in August 2025, so their landing craft will not be certified before 2026. NASA took this into account by postponing Artemis III to 2027. Similarly, the manufacture of new-generation spacesuits (contracted to Axiom Space) also raises questions about timing – they have been given additional time.
Thus, the actual Artemis timeline is a compromise between the desire to move faster and the need to do so reliably. The history of space exploration teaches us that every mission flies “when it is ready”. In the case of Artemis, it seems that they have decided not to repeat the mistakes of the shuttles, when tragedies occurred in the pursuit of a schedule.
Artemis I mission trajectory. Source: NASA
Artemis II was originally planned (before 2017) as a mission to an asteroid! It was to be called Exploration Mission-2 and visit a fragment of an asteroid in space that another station had pulled into lunar orbit (the Asteroid Redirect Mission project). But that concept was scrapped. Instead, Orion was immediately aimed at the Moon. Artemis II is sometimes called “Apollo 8 of the new generation” – but unlike Apollo 8, this mission will have a fourth astronaut (Apollo had three), and among them are not only Americans but also a representative from Canada, reflecting a new era of international cooperation.
Is Ukraine participating in the Artemis program?
Yes, in October 2020, Ukraine joined the Artemis Accords, a political declaration of principles for lunar exploration. Technically, Ukraine does not yet supply equipment for Artemis, but cooperation is possible through the participation of our companies in partner projects (for example, the Ukrainian company Firefly Aerospace received a NASA contract for the Blue Ghost lunar landing module for science). Ukrainian scientists can also participate in Artemis data research. Membership in the Artemis Accords means that Ukraine will have access to certain program opportunities and will be able to propose its own initiatives. In the long term, it is even possible that a Ukrainian astronaut could fly as part of international cooperation, but there are no direct agreements on this at present.
Artemis II is more than just a flight around the Moon. It is a test of the maturity of a new era of space exploration, where international teams and private companies are working together to realize a dream that once seemed like science fiction: to return humanity to the Moon and pave the way to Mars. The path from idea to launch is thorny, full of engineering problems, budget battles, and political compromises. But every heat shield sample taken, every test launch, every postponed date is a step toward deeper understanding and reliability. Artemis II will show whether we have learned the lessons of Apollo and the Shuttle and are ready to open a new chapter in the history of space exploration. If everything goes according to plan, in a few years we will witness humans stepping on the moon again – this time, perhaps, with the Ukrainian flag on their spacesuits among others. For now, we are keeping our fingers crossed for the four brave souls on Artemis II and counting down the days until their launch.
link